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A series of articles on
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Jesus Christ and Christianity |
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Cultural and historical background |
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Perspectives on Jesus |
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Jesus in culture |
Religious perspectives on Jesus is the specific significance some religions place on Jesus. The two largest world religions, Christianity and Islam, consider Jesus to have been an important holy figure. In Christianity, Jesus is generally thought to have divine attributes as the son of God and the Messiah. In Islam, Jesus is considered one of God\'s most important prophets. Most other religions\' views on him range from considering him simply a man (mainstream Judaism) to an enlightened teacher (Buddhism). Others see him as an ordinary human being but one of the most merciful, influental and wise people in history, if he existed at all (Freethought), (Atheism), (Agnosticism), (Humanism).
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Few of the non-Christian sources of Jesus\' life have survived. This is mainly due to the fact that Christians had no use for these hostile (to their beliefs) sources, and usually only referenced them in order to refute them. Enough has survived, however, to form some idea of what non-Christian believed about Jesus in antiquity.
According to the Greek philosopher Celsus, Jesus was the son of a Roman soldier named Panteras, who had had an affair with Mary. Origen Contra Celsum 1.28. The text states the following in translation: "Mary was turned out by her husband, a carpenter by profession, after she had been convicted of unfaithfulness. Cut off by her spouse, she gave birth to Jesus, a bastard." Origen Contra Celsum 1.28. The 3rd-century church father Origen found this story to be of sufficient importance to go to the pains of arguing against it in his book against Celsus. Tertullian also found the story important enough to offer a heavy handed criticism of the assertion.Tertullian, De Spectaculis 30.6 Furthermore, in the Acts of Pilate it is asserted that a majority of the Jews believed that Jesus was born of fornication. Acts of Pilate Chapter 2.
The Talmudic tradition believed that a man who is referred to as Ben-Stada (whom Talmudic commentators equate with the \'son of Pandira\') "on account of his poverty was hired out to go to Egypt; that while there he acquired certain (magical) powers which Egyptians pride themselves on possessing." Origen Contra Celsum 1.28. According to the Talmud, Ben-Stada learned magic in Egypt and performed his miracles by means of it.Talmud Shab. 104b Furthermore, it goes on to state that Ben-Stada cut the magic formulas into his skin. Tosef., Shab. xi. 4; Yer. Shab. 13d Another story is preserved in the Toledoth Yeshu.http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/humm/Topics/JewishJesus/toledoth.html This document asserts that when Jesus was expelled from the circle of scholars, he is said to have returned secretly from Galilee to Jerusalem, where he inserted a parchment containing the "declared name of God" ("Shem ha-Meforash"), which was guarded in the Temple, into his skin, carried it away, and then, taking it out of his skin, he performed his miracles by its means. This magic formula then had to be recovered from him, and Judah the Gardener (a personage of the "Toledot" corresponding to Judas Iscariot) offered to do it; he and Jesus then engaged in an aerial battle (borrowed from the legend of Simon Magus), in which Judah remained victor and Jesus fled. The Christian writer, Jerome, mentions the accusations of magic that were frequently brought against Jesus. Jerome Epistles 55; Jerome Ad Ascellam, 1.196
Most groups identifying themselves as Christians believe Jesus was God Incarnate (God who took on human nature and human flesh, the second person of the Holy Trinity), who came to earth to save humanity from sin and death through the shedding of his own blood in sacrifice, and who returned from the dead to rejoin his Father in Heaven. However, some groups identifying themselves as Christian, generally considered to be outside mainstream Christian thought, including Jehovah\'s Witnesses, Unitarians and Christian Scientists, believe Jesus was divinely inspired, but not God incarnate.
The vast majority of Christian denominations (generally including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism, but not Restorationism) derive their creeds from the agreement reached at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, known as the Nicene Creed, in the form of the Creed of Constantinople (381), though the dominant themes of the Nicene Creed were communicated and widely accepted among the people of the early Christian church. In addition to the belief in "one God, the Father, Almighty, maker of heaven and earth..." and in "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and life-giver, Who proceeds from the Father...", this Creed confesses the belief in:
Protestant Christians generally believe that faith in Jesus, not good works, is the only way to receive salvation and to enter into heaven, and that salvation is a gift given by the grace of God. Although most members of the various Christian denominations believe that faith in Jesus is necessary (based upon John 3:16), good works are also expected by most (James 2:14-20). However, it is made clear in most denominations that good works alone will never be good enough for one to enter into heaven.
The Lutheran position is the one stated in John 13:15, where Jesus says that his life was given as an example or role model for his followers. In contrast, Roman Catholics believe that even non-Christians can receive the grace needed for salvation if they live a just life. catechism entry on grace and justification catechism. Nostra Aetate, declaration of Vatican II Joint declaration ELCA Vatican
As reflected in the many different Christian denominations, Christianity has undergone several schisms in its beliefs regarding Jesus. However, there are several beliefs which are common to most believers in the divinity of Jesus. The vast majority of Christians believe that Jesus is God, is the only begotten Son of God, and is the second member of the Divine Trinity. He is said to have been made incarnate by the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary; that is to say, he took on a human body and became a man as well as God.
There are differing views within Christian groups as to whether or not Jesus ever claimed to be God. The majority of Christians hold that the Bible shows Jesus both as divine, and claiming divinity. Many modern scholars, however, argue that Jesus did not, in fact, make any such claims, either directly or indirectly; John Hick contends that there is general agreement among scholars today that Jesus did not claim to be God: "such evidence as there is has led the historians of the period to conclude, with an impressive degree of unanimity, that Jesus did not claim to be God incarnate,"John Hick, The Metaphor of God Incarnate: Christology in a Pluralistic Age, Westminster John Knox Press, 2006, page 27.
Simon Ushakov\'s 1658 depiction of Saviour Not Made by Hands, the most popular iconography of Jesus in the Eastern Orthodoxy.
This dispute is also sometimes reflected in the rejection of the common Christian doctrine of the trinity. Unitarianism is Christian belief in only one God, not in the differing aspects of God represented by the trinity—Unitarian Universalism, while no longer strictly unitarian, nor even necessarily Christian, derives partly from this belief. Less common is Binitarianism, belief in the divinity of both the Father and the Son, but not in the Holy Spirit.
Some groups, such as the Christadelphians, Jehovah\'s Witnesses and Christian Scientists, interpret the Bible as teaching that Jesus is the Son of God, but not necessarily God himself. These Christians believe that Jesus was divinely inspired, but not God incarnate. Others, such as Mormons (members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), believe in a Godhead, but maintain that God the Father begat Jesus as God the Son, that they are two separate, glorified, beings, and that Jesus created the Earth under the direction of God the Father. Mormons also have additional, relatively recent sacred texts—the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price—that testify that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God (see article Jesus in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). Swedenborgians (members of the New Church) believe that Jesus is God incarnate, but not a separate person from the Father; the Father is in the Son like the soul in the body.
The Docetics, an early Christian sect, believed (as Muslims do today) that Jesus did not die on the cross, and that the crucifixion was an illusion done by God. Another early sect, the Marcionites, believed Paul and Jesus rejected the Law of Moses and revealed in Jesus Christ a Supreme God, greater than the creator god of the Old Testament. Another, the Ebionites, believed in Jesus as a great prophet who had commanded the end of animal sacrifices and the end of the eating of animal flesh. Other than that, they were observant Jews and did not believe in Jesus as God. They followed Jacob ("James" in the English New Testament), the brother of Jesus, and insisted that Paul\'s teachings were without authority and totally alien to what Jesus taught. Still another, the Arians, believed that the Father was the only true God, based on John 17:3.[disputed] On the other hand, some semi-Arians believed that the Father and the Son are two beings, both called God. They do not believe that the Holy Spirit is God (as it is not, in their view, a distinct person, but rather an impersonal force emanating from God) —modern groups that hold this semi-Arian view sometimes refer to themselves as Binitarian.
Messianic Judaism also shares many Christian beliefs, including the belief in the trinity and the belief in Jesus as Messiah.
Traditionally, Buddhists as a group take no particular view on Jesus. However, recent historical findings and greater availability of translated Buddhist texts indicate possible influence on many of the major teachings of Jesus in the New Testament. Scholars have always noted the great many similarities between the life and teachings of Gautam Buddha and Jesus. These similarities might be attributed to Buddhist missionaries sent as early as Emperor Ashoka around 250 B.C.E. in many of the Greek Seleucid kingdoms that existed then and then later became the same regions that Christianity began. Old World Encounters. Cross-cultural contacts and exchanges in pre-modern times" by Jerry H.Bentley (Oxford University Press, 1993) ISBN 0-19-507639-7 To the extent that Buddhists and Christians were exposed to each other, individual Buddhists may have had positive or negative impressions of Jesus depending on their individual inclinations. In the modern era, as Buddhist-Christian contact increased dramatically (the Dalai Lama and the Pope have met frequently in the past decade), several Buddhist writers have tried to come to grips with the concept of Jesus. Some have gone so far as to describe him as a bodhisattva, a being committed to the redemption of all life.[citation needed] Specifically, comparisons are sometimes drawn between Jesus and Avalokiteśvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. Others see parallels between Avalokiteśvara (who is sometimes portrayed as male and sometimes as female) and the Virgin Mary.
Hinduism is divided on the issue of Jesus. Some say he was a great guru and/or yogi. Some Hindus go as far as to equate Jesus with an avatar (incarnation of God on earth), along with Rama, Buddha and Krishna.[citation needed]
Some authors believe that Jesus spent the so-called "lost years" between his birth and his baptism (which are not described in the canonical Gospels) in India living with the gurus and saints and learning from them. They claim that this was not mentioned in the Bible because Christians did not want to give the teachings of Hinduism credit.
The Hare Krishna sect of Hinduism believes Krishna is the Father that Jesus spoke of—and they accept many of his teachings.[citation needed]Mahatma Gandhi considered Jesus a teacher and inspiration for nonviolent resistance, interpreting his teaching of "turning the other cheek" as a call to stand up courageously to oppression without resorting to violence. Many in the Surat Shabda Yoga tradition of Sant Mat regard Jesus as a Sat Guru.[citation needed]
Some modern traditions also claim that Jesus was an avatar of Lord Shiva, and that "God-the-Son" is actually Lord Shiva. They use the apocalyptic book of Revelation as proof. In Revelation, Jesus destroys the world, but then recreates it, showing a link between the Christ and Lord Shiva. This would also mean that the "Father in Heaven" Jesus spoke of would have most likely been Vishnu, since many Hindu cultures believe that Vishnu was the supreme God, the most common of which being Vaishnavism.
In Islam, Jesus is known as Isa and is one of God\'s highest-ranked and most-beloved prophets, specifically sent to guide the Children of Israel.
Unlike Christian writings, the Qur\'an does not describe Jesus as the son of God, but as one of five major human prophets (out of many prophets) sent by God throughout history to guide mankind. It also states that Jesus\' message to mankind was originally very similar to that of the other Islamic prophets, from Adam to Muhammad, but that it was subsequently distorted by early Christians. Jesus is said to have lived a life of piety and generosity, and abstained from eating flesh of swine (or of any animals, according to some Muslim authors, even some who were not vegetarians themselves). In the Muslim tradition, Jesus did not drink alcohol.
Muslims also believe that Jesus received a Gospel from God, called the Injeel and corresponding to the Christian New Testament. However, Muslims hold that the New Testament has been changed over time (as they also believe of the Old Testament) and does not accurately represent God\'s original message to mankind. Some Muslims accept the Gospel of Barnabas as the most accurate testament of Jesus, although the authenticity and date of this text is disputed in Islamic, Christian and secular academic circles.
However, the Qur\'an and New Testament overlap in other aspects of Jesus\' life; both Muslims and orthodox Christians believe that Jesus was miraculously born without a human biological father by the will of God, and that his mother, Mary (Maryam in Arabic), is among the most saintly, pious, chaste and virtuous women ever. The Qur\'an also specifies that Jesus was able to perform miracles—though only by the will of God—including being able to raise the dead, restore sight to the blind and cure lepers. One miracle attributed to Jesus in the Qur\'an, but not in the New Testament, is his being able to speak at only a few days old, to defend his mother from accusations of adultery. The Qur\'an also says that Jesus was a \'word\' from God, since he was predicted to come in the Old Testament.
Most Muslims believe that he was neither killed nor crucified, but that God made it appear so to his enemies. The Qur\'an narrates that God made it appear so that Jesus was crucified to his enemies but he was not, and lived. According to Islam, Jesus ascended bodily to heaven and is alive. Some Muslim scholars (notably Ahmad Deedat) maintain that Jesus was indeed put up on the cross, but did not die on it—rather, he revived and then ascended bodily to heaven. Others say that it was actually Judas Iscariot who was mistakenly crucified by the Romans. Regardless, Muslims believe that Jesus is alive in heaven and will return to the world in the flesh with Imam Mahdi to defeat the Dajjal ("Deceiver"; the Antichrist in Islamic belief) once the world has become filled with sin, deception and injustice, and then live out the rest of his natural life.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Movement, wrote in his book Jesus in India (April 1896) that Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to India, where he lived as a prophet (and died) under the name of Yuz Asaf. Ahmad argued that when Jesus was taken down from the cross, he had lapsed into a state similar to Jonah\'s state of "swoon" in the belly of a fish Matthew 12:40 (see swoon hypothesis). A medicine known as Marham-e-Issa Ointment of Jesus was applied to his wounds and he revived. Drawing from Biblical, Quranic and Buddhist scriptures, Ahmad wrote that Jesus appeared to Mary, his apostles and others with the same (not resurrected) human body, evidenced by his human wounds and his subsequent clandestine rendezvous over about forty days in the Jerusalem surroundings. The book uses historical documents to suggest Jesus\' travel to Nasibain (Nisbis), Afghanistan and then to Kashmir in search of some of the lost tribes of Israel [1], who had supposedly settled in the east some 700 years prior.
Most Ahmadi Muslims also believe that references to the Second Coming of Jesus in religious scriptures are allegorical and refer to the arrival of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. The Ahmadi view of Jesus is one of the main reasons why the movement is considered heretical by mainstream Muslims.
Adherents to Judaism do not believe that Jesus was the Messiah, and reject all claimed Messiahs, holding that the world is not redeemed yet and thus the Messianic Era has not begun. Mainstream Jewish movements reject such beliefs on the grounds that:
Jewish religious leaders and authorities view teachings attributed to Jesus as a variant of the beliefs held by Essenes and Pharisees at his time. They note that the reported life of Jesus is largely consistent with that of a devout Jew and nationalist insurgent at the time of the Second Temple. While early followers of Jesus may have belonged to a Jewish sect, it was the teachings of Paul that severed the relationship between Christianity and Judaism. Several practices in Christianity clearly derive from Judaism, but have taken on elements that are completely alien to Judaism.
Some attempts have been made to reconcile the apparent conflict between Jewish and Christian theological perspectives on the Messiah. Notable among these is the work of Franz Rosenzweig, who postulated that there is a dual covenant in which Christians have chosen a Messiah to convert out of the pagan world.
Some scholars believe that Jesus is mentioned as Yeshu in the Jewish Talmud, although others dispute this.
Israeli scholar Joseph Klausner insisted that Jesus should be viewed as an authentic Jewish teacher.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints holds various beliefs about Jesus, some of which are unique or represent a distinctive theological perspective.
Beliefs which are similar to those of other churches, include:
Beliefs which are more distinctive of Latter-day Saints teaching include:
Mandaeans see Jesus as a false prophet as compared to John the Baptist. Jesus was seen as the savior and bringer of gnosis by various Gnostic sects, such as the extinct Manichaeism. In modern times many New Agers have reinterpreted Jesus as a misunderstood guru preaching enlightenment.
The Bahá\'í Faith consider Jesus to be a manifestation of God. God is one and has manifested himself to humanity through several historic Messengers. Bahá\'ís refer to this concept as Progressive Revelation, which means that God\'s will is revealed to mankind progressively as mankind matures and is better able to comprehend the purpose of God in creating humanity. In this view, God\'s word is revealed through a series of messengers: Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Bahá\'u\'lláh (the founder of the Bahá\'í Faith) among them. In the Book of Certitude, Bahá\'u\'lláh claims that these messengers have a two natures: divine and human. Examining their divine nature, they are more or less the same being. However, when examining their human nature, they are individual, with distinct personality. For example, when Jesus says "I and my Father are one,"KJV Bible - John 10:30, Bahá\'ís take this quite literally, but specifically with respect to his nature as a Manifestation. When Jesus conversely stated "...And the Father himself, which hath sent me, hath borne witness of me,"[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/k/kjv/kjv-idx?type=citation&book=John&chapno=5&startverse=36&endverse=37 KJV Bible - John 5:36-37 Bahá\'ís see this as a simple reference to the individuality of Jesus. This divine nature, according to Bahá\'u\'lláh, means that any Manifestation of God can be said to be the return of a previous Manifestation, though Bahá\'ís also believe that some Manifestations with specific missions return with a "new name"KJV Bible - Revelations 3:12 and a different, or expanded purpose. Bahá\'ís believe that Bahá\'u\'lláh is, in both respects, the return of Jesus.
Hermeticists do not hold any specific views on Jesus, however many would accept his miracles and teachings as being the product of an exceptionally well-trained and wise master. The claims of being the "Son of God" would be seen as true, but not holding nearly the same value as Christians put on it.
Hermeticists have traditionally seen the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ as symbolic. Rather than physical death and rebirth, they view it as spiritual enlightenment and rebirth.
Hermeticists believe in The All or the One, perhaps simplified as Amen-Ra, the personification of the Universe. This God, is the collective whole of all that exists, so all men would be sons of God, and all women daughters of God. Jesus however, if the accounts of his life are to be believed, was exceptionally enlightened and gifted, which would make him more in tune with God than the common man, in the view of a Hermeticist. Some may believe him to have become an ascended master.
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