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A series of articles on
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Jesus Christ and Christianity |
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Cultural and historical background |
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Perspectives on Jesus |
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Jesus in culture |
Most scholars believe that historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic,[citation needed] with some Hebrew and Greek, although there is some debate in academia as to what degree. Generally, scholars believe that the towns of Nazareth and Capernaum where Jesus lived were Aramaic-speaking communities, that he was knowledgeable enough in Hebrew to discuss the Hebrew Bible, and that he most likely knew Greek through commerce as a carpenter in nearby Sepphoris and because Greek was the common language of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Accordingly, Jesus is believed to have addressed primarily Aramaic-speaking audiences.
This article explores Aramaic reconstructions of phrases in the New Testament as attributed to Jesus and New Testament figures.
It is generally accepted that Jesus was born a Jew, and grew up in a Jewish family in Judea. For over a half-millennium, the colloquial language for Palestinian Jews was Judeo-Aramaic,Casey, P.M., 2002. An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. stemming from the Babylonian captivity and invading Assyrian empire. Judeo-Aramaic was a version of standard Aramaic (which had originally been the language of Damascus) with a number of Hebrew words and some Hebrew-inspired grammar mixed in; the relation of Judeo-Aramaic to standard Aramaic is roughly comparable to the relation of Yiddish to German, although the difference between Judeo-Aramaic and standard Aramaic was less marked. For some Jews Hebrew remained a colloquial language, until the end of the 3rd century AD.[citation needed] Nearly all of the Jewish scriptures were written in Hebrew, making it likely that a Jew who knew the Jewish scriptures also knew at least some Hebrew (especially as Hebrew and Aramaic are fairly cognate). There were also the Targums, Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible, in Galilee or Judea in the days of Jesus during the Early Roman Period. The use of Targums in the synagogue did not become customary until the 3rd century, after the use of spoken Hebrew declined in the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kochba Revolt.
From the 2nd century BC, Palestine had been heavily influenced by the Hellenistic civilization, and Koine Greek rapidly became the international language of the eastern Mediterranean, and so became the language of travelling merchants. It is thus likely that Jesus knew a few Greek terms. The New Testament itself, in the form we have it today, is mostly written in Koine Greek, including many quotations from the Hebrew Bible.
When Jesus is described by the New Testament as quoting from the Hebrew Bible, the quotations that are given most closely correlate with the Septuagint. Most scholars suggest that the New Testament authors most likely used an edition of the Septuagint, rather than translate a Hebrew (or Aramaic) source. However, among the Dead Sea Scrolls, in addition to various Hebrew versions of the Bible that resemble the much later Masoretic text, there are also Hebrew versions that more closely resemble the Greek Septuagint version (in similar fashion to the Samaritan Pentateuch).
Because of the influence of Greek in the east of the Mediterranean, even the officials of the Roman Empire did not really use Latin in the region, and so only a few words of Latin would have been known to most Jews, mostly confined to various symbols of Roman rule (such as the \'denarius\' coin).
The Greek New Testament transliterates a few words and phrases, some Hebrew, some Aramaic and some either. These are mainly words attributed to Jesus, and perhaps had a special significance because of this. Words necessarily deriving from Hebrew (like Hosha` nā! "Please, save!") are hypothesized to be loan words from Hebrew for use in Aramaic.
A small minority believe that most or all of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. This position, called Aramaic primacy, is popular, but most scholars believe that the New Testament, as we have it today, was composed in the Greek language. However, it is not disputed that there does exist a Hebrew/Aramaic layer beneath the Greek text.
Mark 5:41
This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus in the resurrection of a girl, with a transliteration into Greek, as ταλιθα κουμ.
A couple of Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus) of Mark\'s Gospel have this text, but others (Codex Alexandrinus, the Majority Text and the Vulgate) write κουμι (koumi) instead. The latter became the Textus Receptus, and is the version that appears in the Authorised Version.
The Aramaic is ţlīthā qūm. The word ţlīthā is the feminine form of the word ţlē, meaning "young". Qūm is the Aramaic verb \'to rise, stand, get up\'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally \'qūmī\'. However, there is evidence that in speech the final -ī was dropped so that the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an \'ι\' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.
In Aramaic, it could be טליתא קומי or טלתא קומי.
Mark 7:34
Once again, the Aramaic word is given with an attempted transliteration, only this time the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written εφφαθα. This is from the Aramaic \'ethpthaħ\', the passive imperative of the verb \'pthaħ\', \'to open\'. The guttural \'ħ\' was generally softened in Galilean Aramaic,Kutscher, E.Y.. (1976). Studies in Galilean Aramaic..
In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח.
Mark 14:36
Abba, an Aramaic word (written Αββα in Greek, and \'abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατηρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. The phrase Abba, Father is repeated in Romans 8:15 and Galatians 4:6.
In Aramaic, it could be אבא.
Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Aramaic Bar Abba (בר אבא), literally, "Son of the Father", but here Abba is probably the diminutive form of the Hebrew name Abraham, like Akiba is of Yaakob.
Matthew 5:22
Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic of the Talmud means empty one, fool, empty head.
In Aramaic, it could be ריקא or ריקה.
Note: The phrase "without a cause" is missing from Matthew 5:22 in the Codex Sinaiticus and the Codex Vaticanus.
Gospel of Matthew 6:24
Luke 16:9-13
In Aramaic, it could be ממון.
In the New Testament the word Μαμωνᾶς — Mamōnâs — is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.
Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.
In Aramaic, it could be רבוני.
Didache 10 (Prayer after Communion)
1 Corinthians 16:22
In Aramaic (מרנא תא) it means Lord, come! or Our Lord, come!
Matthew 27:46
Mark 15:34
This phrase, shouted by Jesus from the cross, is given to us in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as ηλει ηλει λεμα σαβαχθανει. The Markan version is similar, but begins ελωι ελωι (elōi rather than ēlei).
The lines seems to be quoting the first line of Psalm 22. However, he is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (êlî êlî lâmâ `azabtânî), but is using an Aramaic translation of it (see targum).
In the following verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus\' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Eliyyâ). This is perhaps to underline the incomprehension of the bystanders about what is happening. Matthew\'s use of ηλι may indicate a more \'official\' rendition of the psalm verse, more in line with the Hebrew. Mark\'s version probably represents the Aramaic colloquial better. The Aramaic behind Matthew is êlî êlî lmâ švaqtanî. Whereas Mark has elohî elohî.
A few ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalise this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (ēli ēli lama zaphthani).
As the phrase is clearly translated into Greek in both instances there can be little doubt as to its meaning. However, a minority have speculated on different meanings. Among them is George Lamsa, whose research is generally considered pseudoscience by other scholars.Review of Lamsa\'s translation by Herbert G May, Journal of Bible and Religion, Vol. 26, No. 4, Oct., 1958 (JSTOR)Review of Lamsa\'s translation by PAH de Boer, Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 8, Fasc. 2, Apr., 1958 (JSTOR)
The Aramaic word švaqtanî is based on the verb švaq, \'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake\', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: \'you\'), and the object suffix -anî (1st person singular: \'me\').
This phrase is treated in more depth at Last sayings of Jesus.
In Aramaic, it could be אלהי אלהי למא שבקתני.
Matthew 5:18
The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek original translated as English jot and tittle is found iota and keraia. Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι), it probably represents the Aramaic yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Aramaic alphabet. Keraia is a hook or serif, possibly accents in Greek but more likely hooks on Aramaic letters, (ב) versus (כ), or additional marks such as crowns (as Vulgate apex) found in Jewish Bibles. The standard reference for NT Greek is A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature, Bauer, Gingrich, Danker, et al. (commonly known as the Bauer lexicon. Liddell and Scott Greek-English Lexicon for keraia is here: [1]. See also the article on the antithesis of the Law.
Matthew 27:6
In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Corban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning religious gift.
The Greek κορβανᾶς is declined as a Greek noun.
Luke 1:15
In Aramaic (שכרא) it means barley beer, from the Akkadian shikaru.
Mark 11:9
According to the Bauer lexicon, see references at end, this word is derived from Aramaic (הושע נא) from Hebrew (הושיעה נא) (Psalm 118:25, הוֹשִׁיעָה נָּא, meaning "help" or "save, I pray", "an appeal that became a liturgical formula; as part of the Hallel ... familiar to everyone in Israel."
Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages, Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a good few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is \'bar\' (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning \'son of\', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, \'ben\', is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:
Mark 3:17
Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργες (Boanērges).
There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it (\'Sons of Thunder\'), it seems that the first element of the name is \'bnê\', \'sons of\' (the plural of \'bar\'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοανη (boanê), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be \'rğaš\' (\'tumult\') Aramaic (רניש), or \'rğaz\' (\'anger\') Aramaic (רנז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, \'r`am\' (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as \'bnay ra`mâ\'. The Peshitta reads \'bnay rğešy\' which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.
John 1:42
1 Corinthians 1:12
In these passages, \'Cephas\' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated Κηφᾶς (Kēphâs).
The apostle\'s given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kêfâ, meaning \'rock\'. The final sigma (s) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, Πέτρος (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and Corinth.Bauer\'s Lexicon: Gal 1:18; 2:9,11,14; 1Cor 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; also 1Clement 47:3 He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter. According to some Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus\' Seventy Apostles. Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles.
In Aramaic, it could be כיפא.
John 11:16
Thomas (Θωμᾶς) is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John\'s Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2) he is given the name Didymus (Δίδυμος), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek Θωμᾶς — Thōmâs — comes from the Aramaic tômâ, "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.
In Aramaic, it could be תאומא.
Acts 9:36
The disciple\'s name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβειθα) and Greek (Δορκας). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ţvîthâ the female form of טביא (Ţavyâ). The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon - Entry for "ṭbyʾ" Both names mean \'gazelle\'.
It may be just coincidence that Peter\'s words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (Ταβειθα ἀνάστηθι), are similar to the "talitha qoum" phrase used by Jesus.
In Aramaic, it could be טביתא.
Matthew 26:36
Mark 14:32
The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανει (Gethsēmani). It represents the Aramaic \'Gath-Šmânê\', meaning \'the oil press\' or \'oil vat\' (referring to olive oil).
In Aramaic, it could be גת שמני or גיא ש.
Mark 15:22
John 19:17
This is clearly Aramaic rather than Hebrew. \'Gûlgaltâ\' is the Aramaic for \'skull\'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion \'the Skull\', with no Aramaic. The name \'Calvary\' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.
In Aramaic, it could be גלגלתא.
John 19:13
The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.
In Aramaic, it could be גבהתא.
Acts 1:19
The place of Judas Iscariot\'s death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ακελδαμα ([H]akeldama); other manuscript versions give Αχελδαμα ([H]acheldama), Ακελδαιμα ([H]akeldaima), Ακελδαμακ ([H]akeldamak) and Ακελδαμαχ ([H]akeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably \'ħqêl dmâ\', \'field of blood\'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of "kh" [χ] at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the Book of "Sirakh" (Latin: Sirach). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers.
In Aramaic, it could be חקל דמא.
All Aramaic words are from A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, Bauer-Arndt-Gingrinch-Danker (ISBN 978-0226039336). Though primarily a Koine Greek Lexicon (it is the standard reference for NT Greek), it includes Aramaic words in the Aramaic "square-script" alphabet.
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